Introduction to Philosophy Essays - Kantianism, Social Philosophy

Jonathon McNeil Introduction to Philosophy Fourth Writing Assignment In Immanuel Kants essay, Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals, Kant seeks to explain how his view of morality if different from the utilitarian. Kant says the morality of an action is independent of the consequences. According to the utilitarian, pleasure is the only intrinsic good. Kant on the other hand is not concerned with pleasure, because he does not see it as intrinsically good. Kant believes in what he refers to as the categorical imperative. The categorical imperative is the principle you can apply to any situation. He describes the categorical imperative as the formula of universal law. By forming the categorical imperative, we will know what to morally do in any situation. Kant explains, Act as if the maxim of your action were to become through your will a UNIVERSAL LAW OF NATURE. (511) Following on the categorical imperative Kant believes that good will is the only intrinsic good. This is Kants basic moral theory. As Kant explains, It is impossible to conceive anything at all in the world, or even out of it, which can be taken as good without qualifications, except a good will. Intelligence, wit, judgment, and any other talents of the mind we may care to name, or courage, resolution and constancy of purpose, as qualities of temperament, are without doubt good and desirable in many respects; but they can also be extremely bad and hurtful when the will is not good which has to make use of these gifts of nature, and which for this reason has the term character applied to its peculiar quality. (504) Kant has a different take on the golden rule. The golden rule usually reads as, Do unto others as you would have done unto you. Kant believes this involves emotional attachment. Kant gives an altered version of the golden rule that reads as, Treat other as you would rationally consent to be treated. Kant says, Yet I maintain that in such as case and action of this kind, however right and however amiable it may be, has still no genuinely moral worth. It stands on the same footing as other inclinations- for example, the inclination for honor, which if fortunate enough to hit on the something beneficial and right and consequently honorable, deserves praise and encouragement, but not esteem; for its maxim lacks moral content, namely the performance of such actions, not from inclination, but from duty. (506) Kant explains the categorical imperative. According to Kant a will is ones decision making faculty. The goodness of ones will lie in the will and not the results that the will produced. Kant believes that the will is the only way for evaluating the morality of an action. Kant believes that our emotions are not the correct determinate for moral judgment. The three moral absolutes Kant discusses are: never lie, always help others, and never waste you talents. One hypothetical example would be if the world was coming to an end and the parent or guardian told the child everything would be alright. Kant would argue this would be inappropriate because your maxim should be to never tell a lie. Most people would are that lying to comfort a child is the proper thing to do. This is a lying promise is a good example of why Kants moral theory does not offer enough flexibility. This is a good example because emotions are needed to reason morality. Humans need to have proper emotions to respond appropriately to things. If the utilitarian was to respond to this example, they would say that the end result was not a positive thing and the good will involve did not help the situation. Word count 621

The Transforming Effects of Loss in “Bien Pretty” Professor Ramos Blog

The Transforming Effects of Loss in â€Å"Bien Pretty† Sandra Cisneros, â€Å"Bien Pretty† follows the main character Lupe as she goes through a drastic transformation after meeting and falling for a bug exterminator named Flavio. Lupe originally came to Texas from California trying to escape her old life and her old boyfriend Eddie, after feeling that San Francisco was too small for the both of them. Upon moving to Texas Lupe found a job at the arts center which was unfulfilling and exhausting, making her crave a more fulfilling life. Lupe went through a dramatic transformation upon meeting Flavio. She describes her typical day at the beginning being somewhat like, â€Å"I was putting in sixty-hour work weeks at the arts center. No time left to create art when I came home† (Cisneros 143). Her life at that point amounted to work, beer, potato chips, sleep, and cockroaches. It was the cockroaches that led her to Flavio. Even though Flavio was not portrayed as a good man in the story, the words and ideas he gave Lupe made her come alive throughout the story. Almost instantly her character transformed, she’s given depth and meaning. Cisneros portrays Lupe with a sense of purpose and love. Lupe shows her thoughts about this new life when she says, â€Å"This is a powerful time we’re living in. We have to let go of our present way of life and search for our past, remember our destinies, so to speak† (Cisneros 149), Lupe sounds wise when she says these words, as though she has now found the p urpose of her life, because with Flavio she has found what she has been searching for. Even though Flavio was a typical man, he was nothing special and noting different, but meant the world to Lupe. She longs for him, he gives her something she had never had before, â€Å"He wasn’t pretty unless you were in love with him† (Cisneros 137), and she found him perfect, leading to both love and loss. Lupe’s character goes on a greater journey however after Flavio leaves. According to the Kubler-Ross model the five stages of grief are denial, anger, bargaining, depression and acceptance (Gregory), each of which can be clearly seen in Lupe’s development, ending in her being able to accept herself and the beauty of the world around her. When Flavio initially breaks the news to Lupe that he must return to Mexico she is caught off-guard and surprised. She is somewhat in denial of what Flavio is saying, she asks, â€Å"But you’re coming back. Right?† (Cisneros 156) as though she doesn’t really understand the circumstances by which he is leaving her. However once the news sets in she turns her attention to the starving dog outside the restaurant window. This dog is symbolizing the pain she is currently feeling, she thinks to herself, â€Å"Somebody must’ve felt sorry for it and tossed it a last meal, but the kind thing would’ve been to shoot it† (156). Similar to the dog Lupe is feeling the intense pain of Flavio leaving her, and hiding his wives and children from her. She has been strung along now by him and he is letting her go, just like how the dog must be let go. Following Flavio leaving, Lupe is filled with rage at what he has told her. â€Å"I had an uncontrollable desire to drive over to Flavio Munguia’s house with my grandmothers molcajete and bash in his skull†(Cisneros 157). While the anger she is feeling might seem unreasonable, it is a perfectly normal step in the healing process. According to researchers and mental health professionals, â€Å"It’s important to truly feel the anger. It’s thought that even though you might seem like you are in an endless cycle of anger, it will dissipate – and the more you truly feel the anger, the more quickly it will dissipate, and the more quickly you will heal† (Gregory). Letting all of her anger and frustration against Flavio out is allowing her to see how she truly feels. Even though Lupe tried to suppress her anger at first it still consumed her, and it was a good sign that she was starting to accept the reality of the situation, and how she really felt towards Flavio leaving and hiding things from her. In order to tell herself that she is doing well without Flavio she bargains with herself that she never really loved Flavio. Lupe is able to convince herself by saying, â€Å"I’d never said I love you. I’d never said it, though the words rattled in my head like urracas in the bamboo† (Cisneros 160). This method is a coping mechanism for Lupe as she denies her love for Flavio, even though she has already said that she felt love towards him earlier in the book. However by bargaining with herself and denying her love she is allowing herself to move on from the emotional situation she is in. Lupe experiences severe depression after Flavio left her. Characterized by her lack of interest and her turn away from things she normally knew and would do. In the story Lupe states that â€Å"The smell of paint was giving me headaches. I couldn’t bring myself to look at my canvases† (Cisnero 161). This reaction towards painting, which she previously found fulfilling, is a characteristic sign of depression, according to the Kubler-Ross model, â€Å" In this stage, you might withdraw from life, feel numb, live in a fog, and not want to get out of bed. The world might seem too much and too overwhelming for you to face†(Gregory). These signs are all present in Lupe during this period of her recovery as she begins turning to telenovelas to fill her time, and escape to the predictable worlds the shows provide her. She became addicted, her life, previously filled with Flavio became consumed by her depression, her days are empty of the liveliness she once had as she ig nores the loneliness that haunts her. Bien Pretty displays how Lupe transforms as a character upon, and after meeting Flavio. However it is not till the final pages that Lupe finally begins to show an acceptance with herself and the world around her. Similar to other stages, Lupe’s   acceptance is brought on with a symbolic event. She finds herself continuing on, existing, each day as repetitive as the last, but with the coming of the urracas brings Lupe’s happiness. The birds have their own wild and unpredictable characters and they are able to open her up to the world again. While watching these birds Lupe thinks to herself, â€Å"Just because it’s today, today. With no thought of the future or past. Today. Hurray. Hurray!† (165), which shows the progression she has made towards accepting her loss and being able to overcome Flavio and her past and move on. Focusing on the future is an important part of moving on and the urracas are able to bring Lupe this insight, which allows the story t o show her progression and give her new life. Cisneros, Sandra. Woman Hollering Creek and Other Stories. 1st ed., Vintage Contemporaries, 1991. Gregory, Christina. â€Å"Five Stages Of Grief Understanding the Kubler-Ross Model.† PsyCom.net Mental Health Treatment Resource Since 1986, PSYCOM, 11 Apr. 2019, psycom.net/depression.central.grief.html.

Transformations of Thailand Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3250 words

Transformations of Thailand - Research Paper Example However, this has undergone change. The civil society gas grown and this has developed a participatory political structure in Thailand. This environment has triggered greater abiding of the rule of law and has implemented a system which is more balanced and effective (Thailand Country Report, p.14). The urban elite society has evolved which remains well connected with the senior bureaucrats, international donors and politicians. The loosely cohering and fragmented party system in Thailand has been restructured. The Democratic Party has become highly institutionalized. The number of parties has increased from 1.65 in 2005 to 6 in 2007 and party fragmentation has also increased. The party system was characterized by multi-member system of district election. The civil society has been evolving and is getting more connected to the business associations, bureaucrats and political parties. The workers’ union has been given greater say and responsibility. The NGOs have grown in impor tance. They have also formed alliance with the top bureaucrats and political leaders. The conditions of female workers and children have improved over the years. In the rural areas, the responsibility of self-organisations has increased. The village community has become more cohesive and their actions have become more collective in nature (Thailand Country Report, p.13). ... The Government has implemented policies to allow more cultural space for the Thai-Malays. These efforts were primarily made in favor of preserving the cultural identity of both nations and reducing the impact of the armed insurgency. Thailand has witnessed an increase in the number of programs for creating equal right and opportunities among people (The Asia Foundation, â€Å"Resolving Conflict in the South†). The makers of policy have increased their focus on the development of system capabilities to bring about changes in the educational system in Thailand. This has primary aroused out of the response of the global response to the increasing gap between traditional educational capabilities and the demands of the information system (Hallinger & Kantamara, â€Å"Introduction†). The Thai schools have introduced lessons on cross cultural studies. The country has become more competent in its ability to adapt to changes. Efforts are being made to build the nation’s a bilities to adapt such capabilities. Political Thailand has been undergoing dramatic political transformation. The changes have been incorporated to strengthen the democratic institutions and also as a conflict resolving measure that has been occurring in the Muslim dominated provinces in the southern provinces. The provinces of Yala, Pattani and Narathiwat happen to be predominantly occupied by Muslims. The states lying between Buddhist Thailand and Muslim Malaysia are diverse in terms of culture, linguistics identity from the two countries. The development of government policies in Thailand is ethno-centric which has alienated the Muslim community and aroused armed militancy. Transformation programs have evolved for creating and maintaining equal rights and opportunities in favor of the Muslims (The Asia

Strategic managemnet of burger king Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Strategic managemnet of burger king - Essay Example Between financial year 2009 and 2010, the company experienced net negative growth in its total revenues due to the negative 4 percent dip from it’s US and Canadian businesses. The EMEA region and Latin America had 8 and 10 percent positive revenue growth within the period (Burger King Holdings 2010). Not surprisingly, within this period it is the same EMEA and Latin America regions that had 44 new restaurants opened in contrast to 24 restaurants being shut in the US and Canada region. To mitigate this trend the corporation continued to invest in a U.S. and Canada re-imaging program, deployment of new restaurant equipment and developed innovative products. The company’s worldwide sales growth has been on a general downward slope from the third quarter of 2008 and moved into negative territory from the second quarter of 2009 to date (Burger King Holdings 2010). We shall use the rest of the paper in seeking to explain why Burger King has been experiencing a decline in reve nue especially in the US. The PEST (Political, Economic, Social and Technological) factors have long being used to explain the macro environment of a business which has to be factored in the development of any corporate strategy. The political front has been favourable for the fast food industry in the US with no major legislations or regulations that would hinder growth of the industry taking place. We therefore rule this out of Burger King’s problems. In contrast, the economic environment has never been worse for major US corporations like Burger King. Costs are going up at the producer level but companies are unable to match this up with corresponding increase in prices because of the current high inflation and high unemployment i.e. economic recession. Burger King’s applied two strategies here. First it reduced its offering on its $1 menu by removing a slice of cheese and then raised the price of its double cheeseburger from

The Right to Privacy and Personal Life Research Proposal

The Right to Privacy and Personal Life - Research Proposal Example Their main guiding principle is the aspect of confidentiality with customer data. Indeed, there is need to inculcate public trust in order to get more customers. Data recovery business is a very sensitive one which deals with handling customer information hence there is need to maintain a good reputation in order to remain in business. One of the guiding principles of this data recovery company is the aspect of confidentiality and this company is working as a private entity, not a jury or ought to perform other undercover investigations which is vital for the sake of earning public trust. Except in cases where someone is planning criminal actions such as murder, the company should not easily divulge any other personal information which in most cases is private that would have been retrieved from customers’ computers. In the given case, a technician comes across what seems to be a sensitive murder case. However, he should basically take into consideration the fact that their company is guided by principles which seek to ensure public trust. On the other hand, there is need to safeguard the interests of the public such as safety against criminal activities. The only problem emanating from this case study is that the alleged evidence of murder found in the study may not be abundant enough to lay a case against a client given that it may be fictional writing. After all, this company is not out to probe or do investigative work but only to recover data for the clients. 2. Roughly translated, an organization's ethics come down to the standards that are followed in a relationship with others. This basically is the real integrity of the organization. Mills’ principle cited in Fraser Seitel (1995) states that â€Å"ethical considerations always seek the greatest happiness for the greatest number.† The operations of any given organization should be within the generally accepted standards in a society of which they operate from. The aspect of privacy is also one very important component of the concept of ethics.

Evaluating Mental Health Policy Health And Social Care Essay

Evaluating Mental Health Policy Health And Social Care Essay Mental ill health during early motherhood, or perinatal mental illness, is a serious public health issue with potentially serious consequences for womens life-long mental health and the health and wellbeing of their children and families (Hayes, et al, 2001). Although difficult to estimate, there are also economic and social costs associated with the cognitive and behavioural impact of postnatal depression. As of 2008, the national economic burden of this condition to public services is estimated at  £35.7 million per annum. The mean estimated cost for maternal care in the community for those with postnatal depression is 55% higher than for those without (Petrou et al, 2002). It can also herald the onset of long-term mental health problems for the mother and is associated with increased risk of maternal suicide (Oates, 2003). Postnatal depression has also been linked with depression in fathers and with high rates of family breakdown (Ballard, 1994). There is also evidence that chil dren born to depressed mothers do less well educationally, experience higher levels of behavioural problems and are more likely to develop psychological problems in later life (Oates, 2002). Social support is a flexible concept so broad that its meaning can easily be assumed, or bent to different purposes, rather than overtly attended to. This produces problems in researching social support since the underlying assumptions or theoretical frameworks of the work are not always clear. Postnatal depression has been associated with a lack of social support (Bebbington, 1998). The risk of PND has been found to increase when the level of social support is low or absent (Morse et al 2000; Pederson 1999). Beck (1992) states that social support not only provides practical help, but can aid the mother emotionally by hindering the common experience of rumination. There are three common forms of postnatal illnesses: the baby blues, postnatal (or postpartum) depression and puerperal psychosis, each of which differs in its prevalence, clinical presentation, and management. Postnatal depression is the most common complication of childbearing (Wisner, et al 2002), affecting 10-15% of women (Cooper et al, 2008). According to the National Institute for Clinical Evidence (NICE, 2007) postnatal depression (hereafter also known as PND) has been defined as non-psychotic depression occurring during the first 3 months following the birth of a baby. The 10th revision of the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD-10) defines the perinatal period as commencing at 22 completed weeks (154 days) of gestation and ending seven completed days after birth (WHO, 1992). In the fourth edition of the Diagnostic Statistical Manual (DSM-IV), the American Psychiatric Association makes no mention of perinatal mental illness a lthough postnatal depression is included, but only if the mother is diagnosed within four weeks of the birth (American Psychiatric Organisation, 1994). The interest and motivation for exploring the topic of postnatal depression is due to professional experience of working in this field. This dissertation seeks to explore the variety of approaches for treating PND, focussing on the role of social support. Current national policy and frameworks will be examined, together with current practice of interventions. Evaluating Mental Health Policy There have been many discussions about whether depression during the early postnatal period is either quantitatively or qualitatively different from depression at other times (Stoppard, 2000) and has been the focus of much policy and research since the 1960s (Brockington, 1998). In 2004, the National Institute for Clinical Evidence (NICE) asked the National Collaborating Centre for Mental Health (NCCMH) to develop a clinical guideline on the treatment and management of mental health problems in the antenatal and postnatal period (NCCMH, 2004). Before this, the Department of Health published a 10 year agenda for improving mental health care in England, known as the National Service Framework for Mental Health (NSF, 1999) which set priorities for the way that services were to be provided. The NSF proposed protocols to be implemented for the management of postnatal depression, anxiety disorders and those needing referral to psychological therapies. The NSF recognised the role of Health Visitors with training who could use routine contact with new mothers to identify PND and treat its milder forms. Furthermore, the NSF related to actions to reduce suicides, by ensuring that staff would be competent to assess the risk of suicide among individuals at greatest risk. This standard was relevant to Health Visitors, as maternal suicide was cited as the largest cause of maternal death in the first postnatal year. Subsequent policy statements and guidance have since been supplemented to the framework, including the National Institute of Clinical Evidence (NICE, 2007) guidelines for antenatal and postnatal mental health (NICE-CG45, 2007). The NICE guidance identifies the need for emotional and social support for new mothers, whilst the National Service Framework aims to deliver a high quality standardized service. In 2007, the in-depth guidance was published where the standards for postnatal mental health needs were summarized as: All professionals involved in the care of women immediately following childbirth need to be able to distinguish normal emotional and psychological changes from significant mental health problems, and to refer women for support according to their needs All professionals directly involved in the care of each woman who has been identified as at risk of a recurrence of a severe mental illness following the birth, including the family, are familiar with her relapse signs Each woman who has been identified as at risk of a recurrence of a severe mental illness has a written plan of agreed multi-disciplinary interventions and actions to be taken The Department of Health issued guidance in 2009, called the Healthy Child Programme: pregnancy and the first five years of life and is an update to the National Service Framework for Children, Young People and Maternity Services (2004). The programme emphasises the NICE guidelines, including the need for the woman to be asked sensitive and appropriate questions to help identify depression. Additionally, the programme states the need for parent-infant groups, baby massage, listening visits, cognitive behavioural therapy and interpersonal therapy. In February 2011, the Government published its new Mental Health strategy No Health without Mental Health which acknowledges that mental health is a public health issue that needs co-operation from many different agencies, including education, social care, housing, employment and welfare. According to NICE (2007), various psychosocial and psychological treatments are recommended for the management of depression in the postnatal period: Social support can be defined in terms of sources of support (e.g. spouse, friends and relatives, support groups), or in terms of the type of support received, (e.g. informational support, emotional support, practical support). Non-directive counselling an empathic and non-judgemental approach, listening rather than directing but offering non-verbal encouragement. This approach is usually offered by health visitors. Self-help strategies: Guided self help Computerized cognitive behavioural therapy (C-CBT) Exercise Brief psychological treatment Structured psychological treatment: Cognitive behavioural therapy Interpersonal therapy NICE guidelines clearly state that PND services are subject to local variation due to locally existing services. To ensure the effective provision of high quality clinical services, it is essential that there is a clear referral and management protocol for services with a well defined pathway. Furthermore, NICE guidance states that services should develop clinical networks to improve access for women to specialist perinatal mental health services. In a report published in March 2011 by the Patients Association, it was found that 64% of Primary Care Trusts (PCTs) do not have a specific strategy in place when commissioning services specific to PND. World Class Commissioning (www.icn.csip.org.uk) clearly states that PCTs should have services that accurately reflect the needs of the local population. The report also shows that 44% of PCTs are failing to implement the NICE guidance due to not being part of a clinical network or not having a lead clinician for perinatal mental health. Is there a problem? What is it? Why does it need to be solved? What is your hypothesis (hunch)? Who will benefit from your investigation? In what sense will they benefit? In what sense will my contribution add to what is already known? How in general terms are you going to solve the problem, e.g., collect data, analyse data? By what methods? E.g., a case study approach. What are the constraints or limitations of the study? Methodology ( The title of this dissertation is postnatal depression and the role of social support from a feminist perspective. A systematic literature review was conducted The search methods used for the literature review were as follows: Databases searched included: MEDLINE, CINAHL, DAWSONERA, PsychLit, EBCOHOST, CENTRAL and DARE. Published books as listed in the References. Published articles in hard copy journals. Key terms were: postnatal depression, postpartum depression, isolation, social support, stigma, mental illness The searches were designed to be as inclusive as possible The searches were limited to articles between 1985 and 2011. An additional google search was conducted Overall, a total of ( ) abstracts were identified by the literature searches, over ( ) papers were assessed resulting in the final reference list of ( ) papers. Methodological limitations Ethical limitations The overall aim of this study is to understand postnatal depression and the objectives are as follows: Explore the different sources of social support for new mothers in the year following childbirth To evaluate the effectiveness of different models To examine the evidence of efficacy of social support To consider the findings in relation to policy and practice interventions and guidance of perinatal mental health Theoretical Perspective Brewer (2000) states that theory is a set of interrelated abstract propositions about human affairs and the social world. While much of the research on postnatal depression has been subjective, it may provide a political and ideological commitment to supporting the development of health services specifically targeted at womens health needs. Such a political process is consistent with the drive of feminist concerns that the health care system has failed to distinguish the particular needs of women (Najman, et al, 2000). This dissertation will attempt to look at the role of social support role from a feminist perspective. According to Busfield (1996), feminism is a philosophy suggesting that women have been systematically disadvantaged. Durrheim (1999) argues that feminist theorists aim to change this by investigating the situations and understanding the experiences of women in society and in doing so, provide a better world for women. Feminist research is opposed to patriarchal societies, which attempt to understand the world in order to control and exploit its resources. Feminists also describe the male point of view as objective, logical, task-orientated and instrumental. It reflects a male emphasis on individual competition, on dominating and controlling the environment (Neuman, 1997). Further, by examining postnatal depression through a feminist lens, the mechanism of social structure that contributes to the pressure to find motherhood a perfect, happy time can be addressed. Postnatal depression has been reported and studied since 1858 (Richards, 1990). In the nineteenth century, psychiatric disorders due to pregnancy and childbirth were common enough to account for 10% of all asylum admissions (Marland, 2003). Allen (1986) states that writer Chesler (1972) assumes that psychiatry sees women as madder than men and is perhaps rooted in the historical context of womens psycho-pathology being linked with femininity (Showalter, 1987). Taylor (1996), suggests that the dominant discourse surrounding postnatal depression overlooks the social construction of gender order and conventional gendered power dynamics. Furthermore, she stresses that the media play a role in blaming mothers, questioning appropriate behaviour and the choice of self-identity outside of motherhood. The structure of families in modern society creates problems of isolation and alienation (Taylor, 1996) as we move away from the traditional nuclear family unit and loss of close extended family ties. Over the past decade, self-help, recovery, and support groups that draw upon the discourse of feminism have gained increasing importance as sources of emotional support and settings in which women seek to redefine the female self. Models of mental illness Postnatal depression is conceptualized as a disease or illness and research efforts have been devoted to describing, predicting, preventing, and treating it (Cox Holden, 1994). Researchers have also endeavoured to uncover the underlying factors associated or correlated with postnatal depression, including biological variables such as hormones, other biochemicals, genetic factors; psychological characteristics such as personality traits, self-esteem, previous psychiatric history, family history, attitudes towards children, deficiencies in self-control, attribution style, social skills; a range of social variables, for example an unplanned pregnancy, method of feeding the baby, type of delivery, obstetric complications, infant temperament, previous experience with babies, marital relationship, social support, stressful life events, employment status, and socio-demographic characteristics such as social class, age, education, income, parity (OHara Zekoski, 1988). Mental illness can be difficult for people to understand or empathise with. Similarly, even mental health professionals can have difficulties in understanding what is going on for the patient, as there is no one diagnostic test that can be performed on the brain in an attempt to provide a simple answer or treatment. The effects of mental illness are made apparent in actions, feelings and thoughts, and therefore a model or group of linked theories is used to explain the cause and predict the best source of treatment. Doctors helping people with mental illness have models to guide them in both diagnosis and treatment. Most models of mental illnesses will nowadays acknowledge a combination of biological, psychological and social factors. Different models will, however, vary in which factors they rate as the most important. When advising a patient, a doctor tries to look at which interventions are likely to work best for that particular patient, taking into account the patients symptom s and circumstances. Models are the basis of every scientific belief. The medical model and behavioural model of psychiatric illness differ in their assumptions about the nature of the illness and the appropriate treatment (ref), however many practicing psychiatrists use features from both in the bio-psycho-social model (ref). Psychological models such as the learning theory, personal construct theory and psychoanalytic theory differ in the time-scale over which they try to produce explanations of behaviour. A biological model of mental illness is based on the presumption that the illness has a physical cause and therefore requires a physical treatment. This model suggests that mental illness is caused by chemicals, genetics or hormonal imbalances and such, a biological intervention or treatment would be drugs to reverse the chemical imbalance. A psychological model says that disruption or dysfunction in psychological processes lead to mental illness. Furthermore, personal experiences, social and environmental factors are important contributors to psychological distress. Taking anti-depressant medication would not be treating the cause of the problems; therefore treatment would be in the form of therapy such as psychoanalysis and cognitive behaviour therapy. There are two social models of mental illness: the labelling theory states that behaviours disliked by society are labelled as symptoms of a psychiatric illness. Labelling a person as having a disease, particularly mental illness is to become that illness, for instance shes mental and it is therefore easy to understand the concept of blame and stigma surrounding mental illness. Society believes that we can and should be able to control our psyche and emotions and thus the descent into mental crisis should be avoidable and controllable. Labelling, therefore, questions the very existence of mental illness and helps to maintain the imbalance of power between men and women (Taylor, 1996). Labelling a gendered illness provides society with a more palatable acceptance of the disease and its options for treatment. Szasz (1962) examined the concepts of stigma in mental illness and criticised the ways in which psychiatry made assumptions about those labelled as mentally ill. Another theory is that social situations can lead to a mental illness. For instance poverty leads to situations that a person cannot control, which can lead the person to develop anxiety. Some researchers suggest that the availability of medical care and expectations of quality of life following the birth of a baby (Thurtle, 1995) lead to postnatal depression. Feminist sociologists have looked at the impact of social factors on womens mental illness from three different perspectives: societal causes, medical causes and the mother herself (Taylor, 1996). A typical feminist approach would be to question whether a historically patriarchal tradition, namely medicine, can realistically address the experiences and needs of women. Medical perspectives consider that womens unhappiness and discontent is framed in psychiatric terms and are therefore treated accordingly. The medical model has been the dominant theoretical perspective of postnatal depression and according to a feminist perspective this disempowers womens individual experiences. While feminist researchers have criticized the medical model for the way it blames individual mothers for their difficulties, mothers themselves feel that the medical label and status, and the hormonal explanation, have the opposite effect of releasing them from blame and responsibility because the depression is something which is happening to them, their bodies and is therefore beyond their control. It is reassuring for some to know that they were not going mad but experiencing a medically recognized problem, shared by other mothers, and for which they were neither responsible nor to blame. Oakley (ref) suggests that pregnancy and childbirth are constituted as a disease by the medical profession. In an article written for the British Journal of General Practice, Richards (ref) questioned whether giving the diagnosis of postnatal depression to tired, overwhelmed women, simply allows them to claim sickness benefit. Considerable effort has been put into research into the causes of postnatal depression from a biological or hormonal reason; however Richards (1990) believes that no consistent relationship has been found. Dalton (1989) claims that there are endocrinology reasons for depression after childbirth, and that this could be treated by diet or hormonal treatment. However Oakley (1980) criticizes this view from a feminist perspective, believing this emphasizes women as reproducers. Despite Daltons (1989) opinion that postnatal depression is caused by hormones, she does believe that social and psychological support could benefit the mother. Kitzinger (2006) believes that many women are wrongly labelled as suffering from postnatal depression because they are unhappy after the birth, when in fact their distress is the result of a medically managed but traumatic birth. Kitzinger (2006) argues that the failure of the maternity services to give humane care can be ignored when the focus is placed on the mothers performance during childbirth. There are many theoretical perspectives that seek to explain the notion of postnatal depression and this dissertation will be focussing on the feminist perspective in a later chapter. Chapter 2 Postnatal Depression The postnatal period is well known as an increased time of risk for the development of serious mood disorders. Many women feel exhausted, not just from the physical efforts from giving birth, but the emotional effects of adjusting to their new role as a mother. Although this dissertation is concentrating on postnatal depression, there are two other important conditions that can be diagnosed after the birth, which will be briefly mentioned as follows; Baby blues Baby blues is the term used to describe temporary feelings of tearfulness and lack of concentration either immediately following the birth or within a few days, sometimes coinciding with the mothers milk coming in. These feelings may come as a shock to the mother, as she may have expected to feel joy and elation. This condition is very common in up to 80% of new mothers, so is considered as normal, but generally passes after about ten days. There is no treatment for the baby blues, however practical and emotional support in these first few days would be helpful. Puerperal psychosis Puerperal psychosis is a terrifying and rare complication following the birth affecting between one in 500 and one in 1000 mothers. The symptoms are hallucinations and delusions and often the mother believes that the baby is evil, she hears voices and can be confused. The word psychosis is simply a medical term, which means, according to the dictionary: any severe mental disorder in which contact with reality is lost or highly distorted The common treatment is anti-psychotic medication; however the mother may have to be admitted to a psychiatric unit for observation. Symptoms of PND The onset of postnatal depression can be gradual and difficult to distinguish either from the normal emotional sensitivity of recent childbirth, or because the mother is hesitant to disclose her true feelings. Many women feel that they may not need support or that they can manage on their own, whereas others may think there is a stigma attached to admitting feeling depressed. Some of the identifying symptoms of postnatal depression can be physical, however the majority are emotional and affect the everyday life of the mother. In order for a diagnosis to be made, at least five of the following symptoms have to be present for at least two continuous weeks; Feeling unable to cope, loss of confidence, feeling inadequate Panic attacks, excessive anxiety and obsessions about the baby, routines and cleaning Negative thoughts, irrational thoughts, depressed mood Feeling little/no love for the child, delayed/no bonding with the baby Not enjoying motherhood and wondering what is wrong with them because of it No interest or pleasure in anything, boredom, things seeming pointless Suicidal thoughts Constantly needing reassurance Fear that if they asked for help their baby would be taken away Feeling a burden to family and friends Everything seeming negative, unable to remember positive times/things Things getting out of proportion, being thrown by even small things Tiredness, lethargy Loss of appetite, weight loss Loss of interest in sex, loss of libido Risk factors There is considerable discussion surrounding the cause of postnatal depression (Richards, 1990). In a report written by OHara and Zekosi (1996), their findings led to the conclusion that PND reflects the coincidental occurrence of the puerperium and depression, rather than reflecting a causal relation between childbearing and depression. However, Kumar et al, (1984) found that childbearing in itself has a damaging effect on the mental health of women. Martin et al (2001) conducted a comparison of women in a psychiatric mother and baby unit and concluded that puerperal depression has a distinct biological aetiology. This conflicts with Richards (1990) conclusion that there is no link. According to Harlow (2003), any mother can be affected by postnatal depression, with no relation to age, social class, cultural background or educational status. However, research studies have consistently shown that the following risk factors are strong predictors of PND: Poor quality social support An unstable or unsupportive relationship Depression or anxiety in pregnancy Previous history of sexual abuse Recent stressful life events Labour/birth trauma In addition to many factors on the mothers side, there may be a relation between the behaviour of the infant that has an effect on maternal depression. In a study of 188 first time mothers, neonatal irritability and poor motor function was found to predict postnatal depression (Murray et al. 1996). There are few studies on the role of infant factors in the aetiology of postnatal depression, but it is possible that the babies react to parental mood and depression and vice versa. Prevalence According to Cox (1993) the incidence of women developing postnatal depression in the UK is between 10-12%. However, a study conducted in 2002, found that 27% of mothers aged between 15-44 years of age were found to be suffering from postnatal depression, of which half of them had contacted their GP within 4 months of the birth (Kaye, 2002). The rate of prevalence has varied due to different criteria (e.g, general practitioners or psychiatrists diagnosis, self-report questionnaire, clinical interview), different study designs and different time intervals (from few days up to several years) used. OHara (1987) suggested that the symptoms of postnatal depression can be relieved and diminished within one to six months, but sometimes depression can become chronic. Thus, it should be acknowledged that without effective treatment postnatal depressive symptoms may continue for as long as one to two years. The sixth report of the confidential enquiries into maternal deaths in the UK, Why Mothers Die, reported suicide as the most common cause of maternal death for women in the first year after childbirth. According to the Confidential Enquiries Report for Mothers and Child Health (Lewis, 2004) the number of suicides by women during the perinatal period has declined from 29 in 1997-1999 to 21 known suicides in 2000-2002. Depression can lead to more deaths from suicide each year than there are deaths from road accidents. According to Gregoire et al (1996), if postnatal depression is left untreated, 25% of women will continue to suffer one year after delivery and one in twenty-one women will still have postnatal depression two years later (Lumley et al, 2003). The statistics also show that women with untreated PND are at least 300 times more likely to suffer again in subsequent pregnancies (Hamilton et al, 1992). Detection There are a number of rating scales used to measure and detect postnatal depression. In many countries, health visitors screen for PND using the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS), which is a 10-item self-reporting screening instrument to aid the detection of post-natal depression (Cox et al. 1987; Murray and Carothers 1990; Warner et al. 1996; Wickberg and Hwang 1996b). This is designed to assess the mother at 6-8 weeks after the birth by the Health Visitor at home (appendix). A threshold score of 12 has been used as an indication that correctly identifies at least 80% of mothers with major depression (Cox et al. 1987; Harris et al. 1989; Murray and Carothers 1990). The NICE guidelines recommend the use of the Whooley questions (appendix) as a simple screening method to detect postnatal depression. This screening technique is used by health visitors at the initial contact and offers the opportunity to screen without a formal assessment. However, the EPDS and Whooley questions are not diagnostic tools in their self, and should always be used in conjunction with a clinical evaluation if necessary. Consequences of postnatal depression Different mechanisms have been proposed to explain the effect of postnatal depression to childs psychopathology (Murray and Cooper 1997). Whiffen (1989) suggests that infant temperament and behaviour is related to postnatal depression, both as a consequence and a cause of it. Mothers with chronic depression have infants with more behavioural problems such as sleeping and eating problems and temper tantrums (Campbell et al. 1997), and severity of depressive symptoms associates with compromised cognitive and attachment security (Lyons-Ruth et al. 1986). A second effect might be the maternal interactional and parenting style, secondary to maternal depression. Mothers with postnatal depression may be emotionally unavailable for their infants and they may withdraw from interaction situations. In addition, they may respond in an inappropriate or unpredicted or even unreceptive manner to their child. Paternal postnatal depression is rarely reported or studied, but estimated rates of paternal depression have varied from 4 to 13% (Ballard et al. 1994, Areias et al. 1996) in the early postpartum period. Treatment and Prevention If postnatal depression is left untreated, it can persist for many months with adverse consequences for mothers, children and families (Josefsson et al, 2001). There is the possibility of short and long-term consequences for the babys cognitive, social and emotional development. Depressed mothers make more negative and fewer positive responses to their babies and the infants learn a style of interaction that transfers to their subsequent interactions with other people (Field, et al 1988). Longer term adverse influences have been demonstrated on childrens language development, IQ and social development (Coghill et al . 1986; Sharp et al . 1995; Murray et al. 1996; 1999). Typically, mothers with postnatal depression go through silent suffering. Effective treatments are available, but help is often not actively sought. Small and his group (1994) found out that only one third of depressed mothers sought professional help. However, these mothers often advised other depressed mothers to find someone to talk to. However, the evidence for the effectiveness of interventions to prevent postnatal depression is conflicting. Stuart, et al, (2003) suggested that early intervention, even in the antenatal period is an effective way of tackling postnatal depression. Midwives counselling, given support and explanations about the childbirth prior to labour provided a better postnatal mental health of the mothers (Lavender and Walkinshaw 1998). The statistical power of existing studies is, however, very limited (Lawrie 2000). The provision

Composed from Westminster Bridge Essay -- Literary Analysis

‘Composed from Westminster Bridge’ invokes a strong sense of nature into the reader. It is from this that we can see the beauty of Wordsworth’s London. One can argue that it is the purpose of this sonnet to highlight the power of nature and how civilization fits in around it. Primarily this can be seen in the linguistic choices of the Sonnet, particularly the role of personification, the function of phonological features such as rhyme and rhythm and the position of secondary sources. Using this methodology we should be able to explore the awe inspired respect of nature and how the city of London meshes with nature. Wordsworth makes heavy use of personification within the Sonnet. These personifications animate the city beyond the literal description we encounter into a more natural affair. ‘This city now doth like a garment wear/ The Beauty of the morning; silent, bare.’ To suggest that the city is wearing a garment implied that it is being covered up or censored. We could take this as a sign that nature hides the sins of civilization in the morning time when the people are still asleep. Further more as nature is being worn by civilization we could infer that Wordsworth only takes on this appreciation of the city due to the effects of nature. To prove this we can look at Wordsworth’s description of London in relation its surroundings. The description of London’s ‘Ships, towers, domes, theatres and temples’ in the syndetic list is almost paralleled in the latter line of ‘In his first Splendour valley, rock or hill;’ which is the view of Suckersmith who states that ‘the listed details of the city skyline, 'Ships, towers, domes, theatres, and temples' find a careful parallel in the features of the natural landscape, 'valley, roc... ...alden:Blackwell Publishing 2006) p.534-535 All subsequent references are to this edition Harvey Peter Sucksmith, ‘Ultimate Affirmation: A Critical Analysis of Wordsworth's Sonnet, 'Composed upon Westminster Bridge', and the Image of the City in 'The Prelude’, The year book of English studies 6 (1976) p. 115 Charles V. Hartung, ‘Wordsworth on Westminster Bridge: Paradox or Harmony?’, College English 4 (1952) p.202 Harvey Peter Sucksmith, ‘Ultimate Affirmation: A Critical Analysis of Wordsworth's Sonnet, 'Composed upon Westminster Bridge', and the Image of the City in 'The Prelude’, The year book of English studies 6 (1976) p. 115 C. V. Wicker, ‘On Wordsworth’s Westminster Bridge Sonnet’, The News Bulletin of the Rocky Mountain Modern Language Association 9 (1955) pg.4 Carl Woodring, ‘Nature and Art in the Nineteenth Century’, PMLA 92 (1977)pg. 193